【战略与国际研究中心】中国的教育与其他国家相比如何？ [美国媒体]

How does education in China compare with other countries?

中国的教育与其他国家相比如何？

【日期】2016年11月15日



Innovation is a critical component of national power. It propels countries to develop new products or methods of production that drive economic progress and enable states to tackle transnational challenges, such as climate change and global health crises. The ability of a country to cultivate its capacity for innovation rests with its domestic education system. A well-educated workforce is instrumental to technological and scientific discovery, which can propel states to the apex of the increasingly innovation-based global economy.  This need is particularly salient for China as its leaders seek to push the Chinese economy up the global value chain.

创新是国家实力的关键组成部分。它推动各国开发新产品或新的生产方式，驱动经济进步，也使各国能够应对诸如气候变化和全球公共健康危机等跨国挑战。一个国家培养创新的能力取决于其国内教育体系。一只受过良好教育的劳动力大军有助于科学技术发现，推动该国走向愈来愈以创新为基础的全球经济的巅峰。这一需求对中国来说尤为突出，因为中国领导人正寻求推动中国经济站上全球价值链的高端。
                           
Provincial Education Breakdown in China

中国省域教育的不健全

Calculated from mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling.
Rated from 0 (no educational attainment) to 1 (perfect educational attainment).
Source: UNDP

计算结果来源于平均上学年限和预期上学年限。
受教育程度评价范围（0到1）
资料来源:联合国开发计划署



PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

中小学教育

In an effort to promote sustainable development, Chinese leaders have sought to improve educational quality and increase access across the country. The most notable government policy, the 1986 Law on Nine-Year Compulsory Education, called for achievement of the ‘two basics’ (liangji): universal enrollment among school-aged children (6-15 years) and full literacy among those under the age of 20. Other measures have centered on revising the national curriculum and enhancing teacher training programs.

为促进可持续发展，中国领导人努力在全国范围内提高教育质量，增加教育渠道。最着名的政策是颁布于1986年九年义务教育法，以期实现“两项基本”(两基):学龄儿童(6-15岁)普及入学和20岁以下人群全面识字。其他措施集中在修订国家课程和加强教师培训计划。

Yet educational access remains uneven in China. Students born into affluent families generally have greater access to high-quality education than those from lower income backgrounds. Data from the National Bureau of Statistics suggest that urban residents in China enjoy a nearly threefold income advantage over their rural counterparts. The household registration system (hukou) has further widened this development gap by restricting the internal movement of persons.  Education-finance policies requiring local governments to bear partial responsibility for funding schools have compounded this issue, leaving less affluent areas without sufficient resources to pay skilled teachers, purchase necessary instruction materials, and maintain school facilities.

然而中国的教育机会仍不均衡。出身于富裕家庭的学生通常比低收入家庭的学生更能获得高质量的教育。国家统计局数据显示，中国城市居民收入比农村居民高出近三倍。户籍制度(户口)通过限制人员的内部流动，进一步扩大了这一发展差距。教育财政政策要求地方政府承担一部分教育经费的责任则加剧了这一问题，使得没有足够资源的欠发达地区无力支付有成熟经验的教师、购买必要的教学材料、维持学校设施等。


Migration from rural areas has forced the closure of village schools, contributing to the decrease in Chinese primary schools from 668,685 in 1995 to 201,377 in 2014.

来自农村地区的流动人口迫使乡村学校关闭，导致中国小学数量从1995年的668,685所减少到2014年的201,377所。

Literacy is a baseline indicator of educational access. High levels of literacy serve as the foundation for improved access to information and directly enhance an individual’s ability to contribute to society.  As of 2011, China had all but eliminated illiteracy among young and middle-aged citizens – a landmark achievement for a country with the world’s largest population. Nevertheless, provincial variations reveal the incomplete nature of China’s ongoing development. Wealthy cities, such as Beijing and Shanghai, reported 2014 literacy rates (98.52 percent and 96.85 percent) comparable with those of developed countries. At the other extreme, Tibet’s literacy rate was a mere 60.07 percent in same year, pegging it closer to under-developed countries like Haiti and Zambia.

识字率是衡量教育机会的一个基本指标。高水平的读写能力是提高信息获取机会的基础，直接提升个人对社会的贡献能力。到2011年，作为世界上人口最多的国家，中国实现了一个标志性的成就——几乎消除了中青年国民中的文盲。然而，各省的多样化差异揭示了这一发展的不完全性。北京和上海等富裕城市公布的2014年识字率(98.52%和96.85%)与发达国家相当。另一个极端是，西藏同一年的识字率仅为60.07%，与海地和赞比亚等欠发达国家更接近。

Regional variations in educational access become more evident when considering the average length of schooling per student. To assess the role education plays in uating economic development and quality of life, the United Nations calculates the Education Index (EI) as part of its annually released Human Development Index (HDI). EI is calculated from mean and expected years of schooling and ranges from 0 (no educational attainment) to 1 (theoretically perfect educational attainment). EI values vary widely across China. In 2014, Beijing enjoyed a high EI of 0.854, which closely matches that of Iceland (0.853), an OECD country that ranks sixth on the Human Development Index. EI is lowest in Tibet, whose value of 0.45, when compared to EI values from around the world, places it in the bottom 20 percent.

当考虑到每个学生的平均教育年限时，地区差异会变得更加明显。为了分析教育在评估经济发展和生活质量方面所起的作用，联合国将教育指数(EI)作为其每年发布的人类发展指数(HDI)的一部分。EI是由平均和预期的教育年限计算出来的，范围从0(受教育程度为零)到1(理论上完美的受教育程度)。在中国，EI值差异很大。2014年，北京有着很高的EI值（0.854），与冰岛(0.853)相当，后者是经合组织成员国，人类发展指数排名第六。西藏的EI值最低（0.45），与世界范围内的EI值相比，处于最低的20%以内。



Income-levels correspond to the World Bank’s development classification, which uses GNI per capita (Atlas method) to calculate the levels of development.

收入水平与世界银行的发展程度分类相对应，该分类使用人均GNI(Atlas法)来计算发展水平。

Urbanization has exaggerated regional differences in educational access. The movement of people from rural to urban areas within China in search of employment opportunities and higher wages is among the largest internal migrations in human history. Migration from rural areas has forced the closure of village schools, contributing to the decrease in Chinese primary schools from 668,685 in 1995 to 201,377 in 2014. Rural migrants have flooded the labor market in urban centers, including Beijing and Shanghai, such that migrant laborers comprise roughly one-third of China’s total labor force. These population shifts have contributed to overcrowded classrooms, which may come under even greater strain as the number of children of migrant workers residing in China’s biggest cities is expected to increase by 1.5 million annually.

城市化扩大了教育机会的地区差异。为寻求工作机会和更高的收入而导致的中国从农村到城市地区的人口流动，是人类历史上最大规模的内部迁移。来自农村地区的人口迫使乡村学校关闭，使得中国小学数量从1995年的668,685所减少到2014年的201,377所。农民工涌入了包括北京和上海在内中心城市的劳动力市场，占中国劳动力总量的三分之一左右。人口变化导致了过度拥挤的教室——这可能会带来更大的压力，因为中国特大城市的外来务工人员的子女数量预计每年将增加150万。

More developed regions have managed to offset much of this demographic shift. Some of China’s most densely populated areas compare favorably with cities in the United States in terms of student-teacher ratios. The average number of students per teacher in primary and secondary schools in Beijing and Shanghai is 15:1 and 14:1, respectively.  By comparison, New York City and Los Angeles have elementary and secondary school student-teacher ratios of 15:1 and 21:1, respectively. Chinese classrooms also have fewer students per teacher than the global average at both the primary and secondary level.

更发达的地区已经成功地抵消了这种人口结构的变化。中国一些人口最密集的地区，与美国城市在师生比方面相比较，显得更有优势。北京和上海的小学与中学，每位教师所教学生平均人数分别是15和14。相比之下，纽约和洛杉矶中小学的学生教师比例分别为15:1和21:1。中国的中小学课堂，每位老师分配的学生人数也少于全球平均水平。

Less economically developed regions often suffer from the migration of qualified teachers to more developed parts of the country and lack adequate funds to hire and properly train instructors. Despite generally lower population density levels than urban areas, limited economic resources manifest in fewer, less-qualified teachers per student.  Guangxi province, for instance, has primary and secondary student-teacher ratios of 20:1 and 24:1. These patterns are mirrored in less developed regions around the world. According to a 2013 United Nations report, adolescents residing in rural areas of developing countries are less likely to have access to institutions with favorable student-teacher ratios. In India, insufficient funding has resulted in national primary and secondary student-teacher ratios of at 29:1 and 34:1, respectively.

经济欠发达的地区往往会受到优质师资向更发达地区流动的影响，缺乏足够的资金雇佣和培训教师。尽管人口密度比城市地区低，但有限的经济资源体现于数量稀缺又不尽合格的教师配备上。例如，广西省小学、中学学生-教师的比例分别为20:1和24:1。这些情况同样反映在世界上其他欠发达地区。根据联合国2013年的一份报告，居住在发展中国家农村地区的青少年不太可能接触到具有良好师生比例的教育机构。在印度，资金不足导致全国小学和中学学生-教师比例分别为29:1和34:1。



In order to address these imbalances, the central government has implemented policies to realign education funding. The National Plan for Medium- and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010-2020) set ambitious achievement targets for primary and secondary education. The plan emphasizes the need to boost scientific and technological innovation by developing China’s human-resource base.  Stated goals include universalizing preschool education and improving the nine-year compulsory education system through the “rational allocation” of resources and provision of “special support” to the less fortunate.

为了解决这些不平衡问题，中央政府已经实施了重新调整教育经费的政策。国家中长期教育改革与发展计划(2010-2020)为中小学教育制定了雄心勃勃的目标。该计划强调需要通过发展中国的人力资源基础来促进科技创新。明确的目标包括普及学前教育，通过资源的“合理配置”和向贫困人口提供“特别补助”来提升九年义务教育体系质量。

Local governments are also taking action to tackle disparities in education access. Shenzhen has waived school fees and Shanghai has offered legal status and funding for migrant children. The Ministry of Education has vowed to crack down on arbitrary fees, which allow some families to send their children to better schools outside the student’s home province. Additionally, the Chinese government passed the Compulsory Education Law in 2006 to galvanize local reform, prompting cities such as Wuhan to develop policies that allow migrant children living in urban areas to attend local schools without the requisite urban hukou.

地方政府也在采取行动，解决教育机会的不平等问题。深圳已经免除了学费，上海为流动人口子女提供了法律地位和资金援助。教育部誓言要打击乱收费，允许一些家庭把孩子送到本省外更好的学校。此外，中国政府于2006年通过了义务教育法，鼓励地方改革，促使武汉等城市制定政策，允许居住在城市地区的外来务工儿童在没有必要城市户口的情况下就读当地学校。

TERTIARY EDUCATION

高等教育

Tertiary education, generally understood as post-secondary school learning supported by universities, technical training institutes, community colleges, and research laboratories, is essential to a country’s competitiveness in an increasingly innovation-driven global economy. Over the last decade, China has made considerable strides in advancing tertiary education, with the number of institutions more than doubling and government expenditures increasing from $52.66 billion in 2003 to $311 billion in 2014. The 211 Project and 985 Project, initiatives designed to raise research standards and cultivate rencai (people with talent), further demonstrate the effort Chinese leaders are making to modernize the country’s education system.

高等教育，一般被认为是由大学、技术培训机构、社区大学和研究实验室所支持的后中学教育，对于一个国家在日益由创新驱动的全球经济中的竞争力至关重要。过去十年中，中国在推进高等教育方面取得了长足的进步，教育机构数量增加了一倍多，政府支出从2003年的526.6亿美元增加到2014年的3110亿美元。211工程和985工程，旨在提高研究标准和培养rencai(人才)的项目，进一步证明了中国领导人为实现国家教育体系现代化所做的努力。



At present, however, the quality of Chinese universities lags behind that of other countries. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016-2017, a widely respected London-based university measure, includes only two Chinese institutions among the top 100 universities worldwide.  Peking and Qinghua universities place 29th and 25th respectively, among the 978 tertiary institutions featured in the world ranking. By comparison, the study found that the United States is home to fifteen of the top twenty universities in the world. University rankings released by Shanghai Ranking Consultancy also reflect this division. Qinghua and Peking universities rank 58th and 71st in the consultancy’s global comparison.  China’s 3rd and 4th nationally-ranked universities, Zhejiang and Fudan, fail to make the top 100.

然而，目前中国高校的质量落后于其他国家。泰晤士高等教育世界大学排名（2016-2017）显示，在全球排名前100的大学中，只有两所中国（大陆）院校上榜。在上榜的978所高等院校中，北京和清华大学分别排名第29位和第25位。相比之下，这项研究发现，世界排名前20的大学中有15所在美国。上海排名咨询公司公布的大学排名也反映了这一分别。清华大学和北京大学在全球排名第58位和第71位。中国排名第三和第四的大学，浙江大学和复旦大学，未能进入前100名。

China’s top universities are highly selective. Peking University does not publicize its admission rates, but applicants from Beijing are believed to have a 0.5 percent chance of acceptance, which is up to 40 times higher than applicants from elsewhere in the country. When compared globally, Peking University’s low admission rate reveals the exceptionally competitive nature of tertiary education in China. Two of the world’s most well-regarded higher education institutions in the United States, Harvard University and Stanford University, have admission rates around 5 percent. In the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge have acceptance rates over 17 percent.

中国的顶尖大学是非常有选择性的。北京大学没有公布录取率，但据信来自北京的申请者有0.5%的录取率，这比来自中国其他地方的申请者录取率高了40倍。在全球范围内，北京大学的低录取率体现了中国高等教育的竞争优势。美国哈佛大学和斯坦福大学这两所世界上最受好评的高等教育机构的录取率约为5%。在英国，牛津大学和剑桥大学的录取率超过了17%。

The structure of the national admissions process further compounds this disparity.  College hopefuls are bound by their hukou (household registration) and performance on the gaokao, China’s National Higher Education Entrance Examination. Every year, universities set quotas for how many applicants may be admitted from each province. Institutions allocate the highest number of spots to applicants from the institution’s home province, and typically preferential treatment is given to urban residents from elsewhere for the remaining spots. Consequently, students from rural or lower-income Chinese provinces must often score significantly higher on the gaokao than their counterparts with urban hukou in order to be admitted into the same institution.  

国家招生程序结构进一步加剧了这种差异。希望上大学的人被他们的hukou(户口)和gaokao(中国的全国高等教育入学考试)成绩所束缚。每年各大学都会对每个省份的录取名额设定限额。机构将最多的名额分配给来自该机构所在省份的申请人，而且通常会给予其他地方的城市居民以优惠待遇。因此，在高考中来自农村或低收入省份的学生，必须在高考中获得比相应拥有城市户口者更高的分数，才能进入同一所大学。

China and India supply almost half of (46.4 percent) the global 6.4 million Science and Engineering bachelor’s degrees.

中国和印度提供了全球（640万个）近一半(46.4%)的科学和工程学士学位。

Chinese universities are generally understood to be divided into four tiers, with Tier 1 encompassing universities designated to receive substantial central government funding to develop China as a world-class research center. The cutoff gaokao scores (fenshuxian) required for admission into each tier are determined annually, but a student’s chances for acceptance usually depend on the difficulty of the gaokao, university quotas, academic interests, and their hukou. A high number of Tier-1 institutions are concentrated in wealthy municipalities and provinces, which earmarks them for more government funding than their lower-ranking counterparts.  Specifically, five of the top ten universities in China are located in Beijing and Shanghai.

一般来说，中国的大学被分为四层，第一层包括了被指定获得中央政府大笔资助的大学，作为世界级的研究中心以带动中国发展。每年都要确定各层的高考分数线(fenshuxian)，但学生的录取机会通常取决于高考的难度、大学的配额、学术兴趣以及他们的户口。大量的一级机构集中在富裕的城市和省份，这使得它们比那些地位较低的城市更需要政府的资助。特别是，中国排名前十的大学中有五所位于北京和上海。

Tertiary enrollment rates further reflect China’s stark urban-rural education divide. On the national level, just over a quarter of the country’s college-age population is enrolled in a tertiary institution.  Shanghai, one of China’s wealthiest municipality, boasts an enrollment rate of 70 percent, while provinces like Guangxi suffer from enrollment rates below 20 percent. A similar trend surfaces when comparing countries across the globe. Highly developed countries in North America and Western Europe have tertiary enrollment rates averaging around 75 percent.  Conversely, in developing regions in Central Asia, just over a quarter of the population attains tertiary education.

高等教育的入学率进一步反映了中国城乡教育的差距。全国只有超过四分之一的大学适龄人口进入了高等院校。作为中国最富裕的直辖市之一，上海的入学率高达70%，而像广西这样的省份的入学率则低于20%。在比较全球各国的情况时，也出现了类似的倾向。北美和西欧发达国家的高等教育入学率平均为75%左右。相反，在中亚的发展中地区，只有超过四分之一的人口接受了高等教育。



* Aggregate values from the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.

英国、法国、德国、意大利和西班牙的总值

Many of those who attend Chinese universities pursue degrees in science and engineering fields.  According to the 2016 Science and Engineering Indicators Report, China and India supply almost half of (46.4 percent) the global 6.4 million Science and Engineering (S&E) bachelor’s degrees. The two countries are projected to collectively account for two-thirds of the increase in global S&E graduates through 2030. By comparison, the European Union and United States supplied 11.5 percent and 9.2 percent, respectively, of the global share of S&E graduates.

许多中国大学生都在攻读科学和工程领域的学位。根据2016年的科学与工程指标报告，中国和印度提供了全球（640万个）近一半(46.4%)的科学和工程(S&E)学士学位。预计到2030年，这两个国家科工毕业生增长人数将占到全球科工毕业生增长人数的三分之二。相比之下，欧盟和美国则分别占11.5%和9.2%。

This outpouring of S&E graduates may present its own problems for China as it seeks to transition to a consumer-driven economy.  A Qinghua and Fudan University joint study observed a gap between China’s supply and its need for highly skilled labor. Specifically, western provinces have skills shortages in fields such as research and development and capital operation, and eastern provinces lack skilled technical workers. Moreover, high-skilled workers often seek opportunities in the same cities, which can lead to an excess of job hunters in a particular market. In 2013, the tertiary education system supplied more highly-skilled workers than the economy demanded, resulting in a new-graduate unemployment rate more than three times higher than the national average.  Educational attainment outstripping market demands is not unique to China. In South Korea, recent graduates face a highly competitive job market with scarce employment opportunities, forcing some students to linger at university.

在中国寻求向消费驱动型经济转型的过程中，涌现的科工毕业生可能会给中国带来自己的问题。清华大学和复旦大学的联合研究发现，中国高技能劳动力的需求和供给存在缺口。具体而言，西部省份在研究、开发和资本运作等领域存在技术短缺，而东部省份缺乏熟练的技术人才。此外，高技术人才经常在同一个城市找工作可能造成某个特定市场的求职者过剩。2013年，高等教育体系培养的高技术人才超过了经济需求，新毕业生失业率比全国平均水平高出三倍以上。教育程度超过市场需求并非中国独有。在韩国，最近毕业生面临着一个高竞争态势的就业市场，就业机会的稀缺，迫使一些学生在大学里徘徊。

Cultivating a highly-skilled domestic labor force is crucial as China endeavors to transition to an innovation-based economy.  As outlined in the National Medium- and Long-term Talent Development Plan (2010-2020), the central government has vowed to improve coordination between tertiary education and demands in the labor market. Furthermore, it aims to establish higher-education research bases in central and western provinces, increase spending on human resources from 10.75 to 15 percent of GDP, and raise the national tertiary enrollment rate to 40 percent by 2020. Effective implementation of the Talent Development Plan may prove critical as Chinese leaders seek to facilitate the country’s economic shift from a manufacturing power to global innovator.

在中国努力向创新型经济转型的过程中，培养高技能国内劳动力十分关键。正如国家中长期人才发展计划(2010-2020)所述，中央政府已承诺要促进高等教育与劳动力市场需求之间的协调。此外的目标是在中西部省份建立高等教育研究基地，将人力资源支出从GDP的10.75%提高到15%，并在2020年将全国高等教育入学率提高到40%。随着中国领导人寻求推动中国从制造业大国向全球创新者的经济转型，有效实施人才发展计划至关重要。